Unit 1: English Summary – History of Medieval India (1206 A.D. – 1757 A.D.)

The Early Turks and The Khiljis

Introduction

The medieval history of India is marked by the arrival of the Turks, Afghans, and later, the Mughals, shaping the political, social, and cultural landscape of the subcontinent. Among the significant early developments in this period was the arrival of the Turks, followed by the rule of the Khiljis. This era, spanning from the late 12th century to the early 14th century, was characterized by military conquests, administrative innovations, and socio-cultural transformations. The expansion of Turkish power under rulers like Muhammad Ghori and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Qutb-ud-din Aibak set the foundation for a new political order in India. Subsequently, the Khilji dynasty, under leaders like Alauddin Khilji, further consolidated and expanded the Sultanate’s influence.

The Early Turks in India

1. The Advent of the Turks

The Turkish incursion into India was part of a broader pattern of Central Asian invasions. The Turks were originally nomadic tribes from Central Asia, many of whom converted to Islam and became integral to the Islamic Caliphate’s military and administrative systems. The rise of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 10th and 11th centuries set the stage for Turkish expansion into India.

1.1 Mahmud of Ghazni (971-1030 CE)

·         Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the earliest Turkish rulers to raid India.

·         He launched 17 military campaigns into the Indian subcontinent, targeting wealthy temples, including the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat.

·         His primary aim was not to establish political control but to plunder India’s wealth.

·         Mahmud’s invasions weakened the Indian regional powers, particularly the Rajput kingdoms, paving the way for future Turkish conquests.

1.2 Muhammad Ghori and the Foundation of Turkish Rule

·         Muhammad Ghori, the ruler of the Ghurid dynasty, played a crucial role in establishing Turkish rule in India.

·         Unlike Mahmud, Ghori focused on political expansion and consolidation.

·         His decisive victory over Prithviraj Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE) marked the beginning of Turkish rule in North India.

·         He appointed his trusted slave, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, as his deputy in India.

2. The Delhi Sultanate and the Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290)

After Muhammad Ghori’s death in 1206, Qutb-ud-din Aibak declared himself the Sultan of Delhi, marking the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate.

The Mamluk (Slave) dynasty ruled from 1206 to 1290, with key rulers such as:

·         Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210): Established the Delhi Sultanate and initiated the construction of Qutb Minar.

·         Iltutmish (1211-1236): Strengthened the Sultanate, introduced the Iqta system (a land revenue system), and gained recognition from the Abbasid Caliph.

·         Razia Sultana (1236-1240): The first and only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, known for her administrative efficiency and military acumen.

·         Balban (1266-1287): Reinforced the central authority of the Sultanate through a strict autocratic rule and the concept of kingship.

The Mamluk dynasty laid the foundations of Turkish rule in India, paving the way for more powerful successors like the Khiljis.

The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

1. The Rise of the Khiljis

The Khilji dynasty was founded by Jalaluddin Khilji in 1290, marking a shift from the predominantly Turkish elite to rulers of mixed ethnic origins.

The Khiljis focused on military expansion, economic reforms, and administrative centralization.

2. Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316): The Architect of Expansion and Reform

Alauddin Khilji was the most prominent ruler of the Khilji dynasty. His reign was marked by military conquests, economic regulations, and administrative reforms.

2.1 Military Campaigns and Territorial Expansion

Conquest of North India:

Defeated the Rajputs of Ranthambore, Chittor, and Malwa.

Captured Gujarat and Warangal.

South Indian Expeditions:

Led by his general Malik Kafur, Alauddin’s forces marched into the Deccan, defeating rulers like the Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, and the Pandyas of Madurai.

Though the south was not annexed, it was forced into tribute payments.

2.2 Economic and Market Reforms

Alauddin Khilji implemented several reforms to strengthen his rule and control the economy:

Price control system (Market reforms):

Fixed the prices of essential commodities, including grain, cloth, and cattle.

Established a network of state warehouses to store grain and prevent shortages.

Strict regulations ensured compliance, with harsh penalties for violations.

Revenue Reforms:

Increased land taxes, particularly in the Doab region (fertile land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers).

Abolished feudal privileges and directly taxed the peasantry.

2.3 Administrative and Military Reforms

Introduced a standing army and ensured they were regularly paid in cash.

Established a spy system to keep nobles under surveillance and prevent rebellions.

Discouraged the power of the Ulema (Islamic clergy) in political matters.

3. Impact of the Khilji Rule

The Khilji period significantly impacted Indian society, politics, and culture:

Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate: Consolidated Turkish rule beyond North India.

Strengthened Central Authority: Reduced the influence of local chieftains.

Economic and Market Stability: Though strict, the price control system helped ensure stability.

Cultural Synthesis: Interaction between Turkish rulers and Indian subjects led to architectural and artistic developments.

Regions Outside Turkish and Mughal Control

While the Turks and later the Mughals dominated much of India, several regions remained outside their direct control for a significant period:

1.      Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646): A powerful Hindu kingdom in South India that resisted Turkish and later Mughal expansion.

2.    Ahom Kingdom (1228-1826): Located in Assam, successfully repelled Mughal invasions multiple times.

3.    Rajput Kingdoms: Though weakened, Rajput rulers like the Sisodias of Mewar retained their independence.

4.    Marathas (Later Period): Played a crucial role in resisting Mughal rule and reasserting indigenous control.

Conclusion

The arrival of the Turks and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate marked a transformative period in Indian history. The Mamluk rulers laid the foundation for centralized rule, while the Khiljis expanded and strengthened the empire through military conquests and economic reforms. The Khilji era, particularly under Alauddin Khilji, was characterized by administrative efficiency, economic planning, and military prowess. However, despite Turkish dominance, several regions of India maintained their autonomy, contributing to the diverse political landscape of medieval India