Unit 1: Summary – Indian Literature in Translation

Translation in a Multilinguistic and Multicultural Society: A Historical and Conceptual Overview

Introduction to Translation

Translation is one of the oldest intellectual pursuits, facilitating communication between diverse linguistic and cultural groups. It plays a pivotal role in shaping societies, disseminating knowledge, and preserving cultural traditions. In India, a country with over 19,500 spoken languages and a rich literary heritage, translation has served as a bridge, connecting regional literary traditions with the national and global consciousness. The history of translation in India is intertwined with its socio-political developments, religious movements, and literary traditions, reflecting a vibrant interaction between languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, Urdu, and vernacular tongues.

A Brief History of Translation in India

The tradition of translation in India can be categorized into three broad historical phases:

1. Ancient and Medieval Periods

·       The earliest translations in India were undertaken in the context of religious and philosophical texts. The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and Buddhist scriptures were translated from Sanskrit into Pali and other Prakrit languages to spread religious teachings.

·       Ashoka’s edicts (3rd century BCE), inscribed in multiple languages such as Greek, Aramaic, and Brahmi, highlight an early attempt at multilingual translation to reach a wider audience.

·       The translation of Sanskrit texts into Persian and Arabic, particularly during the Mughal period, facilitated cross-cultural exchanges. The Mahabharata and Ramayana were translated into Persian, allowing Islamic scholars to engage with Hindu epics.

·       The Bhakti movement (15th-17th century) also encouraged translations, as saints like Kabir, Mirabai, and Tulsidas composed verses that blended different linguistic influences.

2. Colonial Period (18th-20th Century)

·       The British colonization of India further institutionalized translation as a tool of governance and cultural interaction. The East India Company commissioned translations of legal and administrative documents to govern the diverse Indian populace effectively.

·       The Asiatic Society of Bengal (established in 1784) played a crucial role in translating Sanskrit and Persian texts into English. Sir William Jones, an orientalist, translated works like Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam, making Indian literature accessible to European readers.

·       Translation also served as a means of resistance. Indian intellectuals and reformists translated nationalist literature to spread anti-colonial ideas.

3. Post-Independence and Contemporary Period

·       After independence in 1947, translation became integral to nation-building, ensuring linguistic inclusivity and fostering a shared cultural heritage.

·       The Sahitya Akademi’s translation initiatives have played a significant role in promoting Indian literature across languages.

·       With technological advancements, computer-aided translation tools and mobile applications like Google Translate have further simplified access to regional literature.

Significance of Translation in a Multilinguistic and Multicultural Society Like India

India’s linguistic diversity necessitates translation for the effective dissemination of knowledge, cultural exchange, and national integration. Some key areas where translation plays a crucial role include:

1. Literary Accessibility

·       Translation allows regional literary masterpieces to reach a national and international audience. Writers like Jaishankar Prasad, Amrita Pritam, and Rabindranath Tagore have gained global recognition through translation.

·       Tagore’s Gitanjali, originally in Bengali, won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, primarily due to its English translation.

2. Preserving Oral and Tribal Narratives

·       The works of Mahasweta Devi, who wrote about tribal communities, have been translated into multiple languages, bringing attention to their struggles and injustices.

·       Similarly, Bhisham Sahni’s Tamas, which depicts the trauma of Partition, has reached a wider audience through translation.

3. Bridging the Knowledge Gap

·       Translation enables knowledge exchange in fields such as science, law, and medicine, ensuring that information is available in regional languages.

·       Government initiatives translate important legal and administrative documents to facilitate communication between diverse linguistic groups.

4. Career and Job Opportunities

·       The demand for translators in publishing, media, law, and IT industries has grown exponentially.

·       With globalization, businesses seek translators to communicate effectively with diverse linguistic communities.

Literal Translation vs. Free Translation

Translation is not a mere word-for-word exchange between languages; rather, it involves interpretation and adaptation. Translators employ different strategies depending on the context, purpose, and target audience.

Literal Translation

Literal translation, often known as word-for-word translation, focuses on maintaining the original structure and meaning as closely as possible.

Characteristics of Literal Translation

·       Preserves the exact grammatical structure of the source text.

·       Maintains the denotative meaning without considering cultural nuances.

·       Used in technical, legal, and scientific translations where precision is crucial.

Examples of Literal Translation

·       Religious Texts: Many translations of the Bhagavad Gita follow a literal approach to maintain philosophical accuracy.

·       Legal Documents: Contracts and government records require precise translation to avoid misinterpretation.

Challenges of Literal Translation

·       Often sounds unnatural in the target language.

·       Ignores idiomatic expressions and cultural connotations, making it unsuitable for literary works.

·       May lead to ambiguity or miscommunication.

Free Translation

Free translation, also known as sense-for-sense translation, focuses on conveying the meaning rather than sticking rigidly to the original structure.

Characteristics of Free Translation

·       Emphasizes readability and cultural adaptation.

·       Allows flexibility in sentence structure and word choice.

·       Commonly used in literature, poetry, and advertising.

Examples of Free Translation

·       Tagore’s Gitanjali: Tagore himself adapted the English version to make it more accessible to a global audience.

·       Kabir’s Verses: Kabir’s poetry, often filled with metaphors and folk expressions, requires free translation to preserve its spiritual depth.

Challenges of Free Translation

·       Risk of losing the original tone and essence.

·       Subjective interpretation may lead to inaccuracies.

·       Requires deep cultural and linguistic knowledge to maintain authenticity.

Case Studies: Contextualizing Translated Indian Literature

To understand the impact of translation, it is essential to examine the works of renowned Indian writers.

1. Jaishankar Prasad (1889-1937)

·       A key figure in Hindi literature, known for his Chhayavaad (romanticism) poetry.

·       His play Chandragupta and epic Kamayani have been translated, introducing readers to his philosophical and historical insights.

2. Amrita Pritam (1919-2005)

·       A Punjabi writer whose works depict the trauma of Partition.

·       Her iconic poem Ajj Aakhaan Waris Shah Nu, translated into multiple languages, reflects the pain of communal violence.

3. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

·       Gitanjali’s English translation played a key role in him winning the Nobel Prize for Literature.

·       His novels, like Gora and The Home and the World, translated from Bengali, provide insights into nationalism and colonialism.

4. Bhisham Sahni (1915-2003)

·       His novel Tamas is one of the most powerful accounts of Partition.

·       The translated version helped non-Hindi readers understand the horrors of 1947.

5. Mahasweta Devi (1926-2016)

·       Wrote extensively about marginalized communities, particularly tribals.

·       Her novel Hajar Churashir Maa, translated from Bengali, shed light on the Naxalite movement.

6. Kabir (15th Century)

·       His Dohas (couplets) emphasize spirituality and social reform.

·       Translations of his poetry have helped non-Hindi speakers appreciate his philosophical wisdom.

Conclusion

Translation is a powerful tool that fosters cultural exchange, preserves literary traditions, and promotes inclusivity. In a country as diverse as India, translation ensures that regional voices are heard, historical events are understood, and literature is accessible to a broader audience. The distinction between literal and free translation highlights the complexities involved in capturing the essence of a text while making it comprehensible in another language. Moreover, the works of eminent writers such as Jaishankar Prasad, Amrita Pritam, Tagore, Bhisham Sahni, and Mahasweta Devi exemplify how translation bridges the gap between languages, communities, and historical narratives.